Italian reorganisation

The unification of Italy, or **Risorgimento**, did not result in a total displacement of the Sicilian ruling classes. Instead, it facilitated a complex adaptation where traditional elites preserved their influence by integrating into the new legal and political structures of the Kingdom of Italy. ## The Strategy of Gattopardismo The primary mechanism for elite survival is often summarized by the term **Gattopardismo** (Leopardism), derived from Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa’s novel *The Leopard*. This concept describes a strategy where the aristocracy supported the revolutionary change—specifically the transition from Bourbon to Savoyard rule—to ensure their social and economic dominance remained undisturbed. By holding positions in the new national parliament and local prefectures, the Sicilian nobility successfully converted feudal prestige into modern political capital. ## The Rise of the Galantuomini While the high aristocracy maintained their status, the Risorgimento significantly empowered the **Galantuomini**, a class of rural bourgeoisie, professionals, and land managers. This group benefited from: - **Ecclesiastical Land Sales:** The new Italian state confiscated and auctioned vast tracts of Church land. The *galantuomini* possessed the liquid capital to purchase these estates, further marginalizing the peasantry who lacked credit. - **Administrative Control:** These individuals filled the vacuum left by the collapsing Bourbon bureaucracy, becoming the local face of the Italian state as mayors and provincial councillors. ## Transformation of Land Tenure The legal transition from feudalism to a liberal capitalist framework was a cornerstone of the post-1861 reorganization. The abolition of feudal rights (which had begun earlier but was finalized under Italian law) transformed land into a tradable commodity. However, this did not lead to a redistribution of wealth. Instead, it consolidated land into large **latifondi** (estates), managed by a new class of estate guards and middlemen who bridged the gap between the distant state in Rome and the local rural population. ## Intermediate Power Brokers and Social Control A critical consequence of the Risorgimento in Sicily was the state’s reliance on local power brokers to maintain order. Because the newly formed Italian government lacked a strong presence in the Sicilian interior, it often co-opted existing informal power structures. 1. **Clientelism:** Political power was exercised through networks of patronage, where local elites provided votes for national politicians in exchange for infrastructure projects or legal leniency. 2. **The Emergence of the Mafia:** In this transitional period, individuals who provided private protection for the *latifondi* and mediated between the peasantry and the landowners began to crystallize into what would become the Mafia. This was not a remnant of the past, but a product of the specific way the liberal Italian state integrated with the Sicilian ruling classes. Through these mechanisms, the Sicilian ruling classes effectively navigated the Risorgimento, ensuring that the structural hierarchy of the island survived the transition to a modern nation-state.

While the Sicilian aristocracy utilized political adaptation to survive the Risorgimento, the internal stability of the noble class faced profound structural decay. The archetype of the "Salina" prince represents a class transitioning from sovereign-like landowners to mere rentiers, struggling against a legal and economic environment that favored capital accumulation over hereditary prestige. ## Legal Fragmentation of Estates The abolition of **Majorat** (primogeniture) was perhaps the most significant legal blow to aristocratic persistence. Under the new Italian Civil Code, the practice of bequeathing the entirety of a family's land to the eldest son was replaced by partible inheritance. - **Estate Fragmentation:** Large consolidated holdings were legally mandated to be divided among all heirs. This process gradually liquidated the territorial basis of noble power, as smaller plots were often sold to pay off debts or dowries. - **End of Inalienability:** Previously, many aristocratic lands were protected by legal encumbrances that prevented them from being sold. The liberal reforms of the 1860s removed these protections, exposing centuries-old estates to a volatile market. ## The Debt Trap and Productive Stagnation The Sicilian aristocracy largely failed to transition from a feudal mentality to an entrepreneurial one. They remained **rentiers**, individuals who derived income from land rents without investing in technological or agricultural improvements. 1. **Fixed Rents vs. Inflation:** As the cost of maintaining urban palazzi and social standing in Palermo rose, the fixed income from traditional land leases decreased in real value. 2. **The Gabellotti Intermediaries:** To avoid the complexities of direct management, nobles leased entire estates to **gabellotti** (rural entrepreneurs). These intermediaries exploited the land aggressively for short-term profit, further depleting the soil's value while the nobility retreated into a state of "absentee landlordism." 3. **Liquidity Crisis:** Lacking liquid capital, many noble families turned to the rising *galantuomini* for loans. Over time, high interest rates led to the foreclosure of ancestral lands, transferring ownership from the "old blood" to the "new men" of the bourgeoisie. ## Social Integration through Nuptial Alliances The survival of the aristocratic identity often required a compromise with the very class that threatened it. This resulted in a demographic and economic merger between the declining nobility and the rising mercantile class. - **Capital-for-Title Exchanges:** Bankrupt or cash-poor noble houses frequently entered into strategic marriages with the daughters of wealthy *galantuomini*. This "injected" mercantile capital into the nobility, allowing for the preservation of palatial lifestyles at the cost of social exclusivity. - **Cultural Assimilation:** While the nobility provided the social "polish" and prestige, the new bourgeois elements provided the administrative and economic vigor. This created a hybrid elite that dominated Sicilian life until the early 20th century. ## Shift from Rural Sovereignty to Urban Retrenchment The Risorgimento accelerated the move of the aristocracy from their rural strongholds to the capital, Palermo. This geographic shift signaled the end of the prince as a local "father" or judge. By becoming purely urban figures, the nobility ceded direct social control of the interior to the emerging rural middle class and their enforcers, permanently severing the traditional bond between the peasantry and the high aristocracy.

While the Sicilian aristocracy grappled with internal structural decay, the new King of Italy, Vittorio Emanuele II, faced the challenge of asserting authority over a region historically resistant to external centralization. The transition from the Bourbon absolute monarchy to the Savoyard constitutional monarchy introduced a new relationship between the crown, the state, and the peripheral elites. ## The Statuto Albertino and Constitutional Sovereignty The position of the new King was defined by the **Statuto Albertino**, the constitution of the Kingdom of Sardinia which was extended to the entire Italian peninsula. Unlike the deposed Bourbons, Vittorio Emanuele II was a constitutional monarch whose powers were theoretically limited by a bicameral parliament. - **The King as a Mediator:** The Crown functioned as the ultimate arbiter between the conservative landed interests of the South and the liberal, industrializing forces of the North. - **National Symbolism:** To provide a sense of continuity, the King maintained the title "Vittorio Emanuele II" rather than "Vittorio Emanuele I," signaling that the Kingdom of Italy was an expansion of the Piedmontese state rather than an entirely new entity. This choice reinforced the perception of **Piedmontization**, the imposition of northern laws and administrative practices on the south. ## The Prefectural System: Administrative Colonization To manage the instability of post-unification Sicily, the King exercised power through a highly centralized **Prefectural system**. The Prefect was a state official appointed by the central government in Turin (and later Rome) to represent the King in each province. 1. **Bypassing Local Power:** Prefects were almost exclusively non-Sicilians. By appointing northerners, the King sought to bypass the traditional patronage networks of the Sicilian aristocracy, ensuring that local administration remained loyal to the national interest. 2. **Maintenance of Order:** The Prefect controlled the police and the military in the province. In the face of widespread unrest and **Brigandage** (rural insurgency), the King’s government often resorted to martial law, positioning the monarchy as a military authority rather than a populist liberator. ## Trasformismo and Political Co-option The King’s government realized that the state could not function in Sicily without some level of cooperation from local elites. This led to the practice of **Trasformismo** (Transformism), a political strategy where the edges between competing ideologies were blurred to create a broad, stable center. - **Absorption of Loyalties:** The Crown actively encouraged former Bourbon loyalists and members of the Sicilian nobility to join the new national administration. By offering senate seats and local bureaucratic offices, the King "transformed" potential enemies of the state into stakeholders of the new regime. - **Senate Appointments:** Under the Statuto, the King had the power to appoint members to the **Senato del Regno** (the upper house) for life. This was used as a mechanism to reward cooperative Sicilian nobles, effectively relocating their political influence from their rural estates to the national capital. ## The Monarch as an Urban Distant Unlike the Bourbons, who maintained a physical presence in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Savoyard King remained a distant figure. This geographic and cultural distance contributed to the **Urban Retrenchment** mentioned in previous contexts. The King was no longer a personal sovereign known to the local population but an abstract representative of a distant, bureaucratic state. This alienation allowed local intermediaries to continue exerting control, even as the legal and monarchical framework of the island was fundamentally altered.

While the administrative integration of the South was characterized by centralization, the Risorgimento also introduced systemic reforms that aimed to modernize the Italian socio-economic fabric. These changes moved beyond mere political control, attempting to establish a unified legal and functional infrastructure for the new state. ## Legal Uniformity and the 1865 Civil Code One of the most significant positive outcomes of the Risorgimento was the transition from a patchwork of regional laws to a unified legal system. The **Codice Civile** of 1865, often called the *Codice Pisanelli*, established a single legislative framework for the entire peninsula. - **Secularization of Law:** The code introduced **civil marriage**, removing the church's monopoly over the institution. This shifted the legal definition of family and inheritance from canon law to state jurisdiction. - **Property Rights:** It codified modern concepts of private property and contract law, which provided a more stable environment for commercial investment and disrupted some of the archaic feudal remnants still persisting in the Sicilian interior. ## Market Integration and Infrastructure The unification of Italy fundamentally transformed the economic landscape by creating a **single national market**. Before 1861, the Italian states were separated by high tariffs and fragmented currencies. 1. **Abolition of Internal Customs:** The removal of internal **Dazi** (customs duties) allowed for the free flow of goods. For Sicily, this meant that high-value exports like sulfur and citrus fruits could reach Northern Italian and European markets more efficiently. 2. **Monetary Union:** The introduction of the **Lira** as a single currency facilitated trade and reduced the transaction costs associated with the numerous regional coinages of the Bourbon and Papal states. 3. **Railway Expansion:** The state prioritized the "Great Railway Plan." While the primary goal was strategic and military, the construction of thousands of kilometers of track integrated previously isolated regions into a national logistical network. ## Educational Reform and Literacy The **Legge Casati** (Casati Law), originally a Piedmontese statute, was extended to the Kingdom of Italy to address the profound levels of illiteracy, which in some Southern provinces exceeded 80 percent. - **Compulsory Primary Education:** The law mandated two years of free, compulsory primary education for both boys and girls. This was the first systematic attempt to create a literate citizenry. - **National Pedagogy:** By standardizing the curriculum and the use of the Italian language in schools, the state began to erode regional dialects in favor of a shared national identity, providing the lower classes with the linguistic tools necessary for social mobility and political participation. ## The Leggi Eversive and Land Reform The **Leggi Eversive** (Eversive Laws) of the 1860s aimed to reduce the economic power of the Catholic Church. By suppressing religious orders and confiscating ecclesiastical estates, the state brought vast tracts of land onto the open market. - **Capital Mobilization:** This process was intended to stimulate the agrarian economy by transferring "dead" land held by the church into the hands of productive private owners. - **Municipal Reinvestment:** Proceeds from the sale of these lands were often used to fund local public works, such as hospitals and roads, contributing to the modernization of provincial infrastructure.

To deepen the analysis of Italy's modernization, the following topics address the socio-political consequences, fiscal challenges, and intellectual critiques arising from the institutional reforms of the 1860s. ## 1. The Fiscal Crisis and the "Pareggio di Bilancio" While the 1865 reforms established a unified state, they also incurred massive debt. Finance Minister **Quintino Sella** pursued the **Pareggio di Bilancio** (balanced budget) through aggressive taxation. - **Connection:** This connects to the infrastructure and railway expansion discussed previously, as these projects required immense capital. - **New Dimension:** It introduces the concept of the **Tassa sul Macinato** (Grist Tax), a tax on grinding grain. This adds a dimension of class struggle, illustrating how modernization was funded by the peasantry, leading to widespread social unrest and riots that challenged the state's legitimacy. ## 2. The Great Brigandage and Social Resistance The institutional modernization was not universally accepted; in the South, it triggered a period of unconventional warfare known as the **Grande Brigantaggio** (1861–1870). - **Connection:** This is the direct counter-reaction to the centralization of law and the extension of Northern military draft requirements to the South. - **New Dimension:** It adds a military and security dimension, specifically the **Pica Law** of 1863, which suspended constitutional rights in "brigand-infested" areas. This explores the paradox of a liberal state using illiberal means to enforce "modern" order. ## 3. The Birth of Meridionalismo (Pasquale Villari) Following unification, a group of intellectuals known as **Meridionalisti** began to scientifically analyze why the South remained underdeveloped despite the new legal frameworks. - **Connection:** This builds on the **Legge Casati** and the **Leggi Eversive**, evaluating their actual impact on the ground versus their theoretical goals. - **New Dimension:** By focusing on thinkers like **Pasquale Villari** and his *Lettere Meridionali*, this adds a sociological lens. It shifts the focus from purely institutional history to the study of structural poverty, social hierarchies, and the "Southern Question" as a permanent feature of Italian discourse. ## 4. Protectionism and the 1887 Tariff The initial economic policy of the unified state was largely liberal and free-trade oriented. However, by the late 1880s, Italy shifted toward a **Protezionismo** (Protectionist) model. - **Connection:** This evolves the discussion on **Market Integration** by showing how the single national market responded to global economic shifts (the Great Depression of 1873). - **New Dimension:** This adds a geopolitical and industrial dimension, showing how high tariffs protected Northern steel and textile industries but devastated Southern agricultural exports like wine and silk, exacerbating the economic divide between the two halves of the country.

The transition from a revolutionary movement to a functioning nation-state required more than legal unification; it necessitated the management of systemic debt, internal insurgency, and the emergence of a dual economy. These developments fundamentally shaped the character of the Italian liberal state. ## Financial Sovereignty and the Corso Forzoso Following the heavy expenditures of the 1860s, the Italian state faced a liquidity crisis. To sustain the new administration and military, the government implemented the **Corso Forzoso** (Forced Circulation) in 1866. - **Suspension of Convertibility:** This policy suspended the exchange of bank notes for gold, effectively decoupling the Lira from the gold standard. While this provided the state with the necessary "seigniorage" to fund public works and the Third War of Independence, it led to significant inflation. - **Impact on Trade:** The resulting devaluation of the currency favored domestic exports but increased the cost of importing the raw materials—such as coal and iron—essential for the industrialization of the North. ## The Pica Law and the State of Exception The resistance to unification in the South, often labeled as "Brigandage," forced the liberal state to reconcile its constitutional ideals with the practicalities of counter-insurgency. The **Pica Law** of 1863 represented a pivotal moment in this tension. - **Military Tribunals:** The law transferred jurisdiction over suspected "brigands" from civil courts to military tribunals. This allowed for summary executions and the detention of suspects without trial, creating a "state of exception" where constitutional protections were suspended in the name of national security. - **Systemic Pacification:** This period marked the first time the Italian army was used as a primary tool for internal police action, establishing a precedent for centralized state intervention in regional social conflicts. ## The Franchetti-Sonnino Inquiry and the Latifondo While Pasquale Villari provided the intellectual spark for *Meridionalismo*, the 1876 inquiry by **Leopoldo Franchetti** and **Sidney Sonnino** provided the empirical evidence of the South's structural divergence. - **Informal Power Structures:** Their investigation into Sicily revealed that the formal introduction of the 1865 Civil Code had failed to displace the informal authority of the **Latifondo** (large landed estates). They argued that the absence of a middle class allowed local elites to co-opt state institutions for private gain. - **The Social Question:** This shifted the national discourse from "administrative integration" to "social reform," identifying the peasantry's lack of land ownership as the root cause of both crime and underdevelopment. ## The 1887 Tariff and the Industrial-Agrarian Bloc The shift toward **Protezionismo** (Protectionism) in 1887 was not merely an economic adjustment but a foundational political realignment known as the **Blocco Agrario-Industriale** (Industrial-Agrarian Bloc). - **Political Compromise:** The state raised tariffs on grain to satisfy Southern landowners and on steel and textiles to support Northern industrialists. - **Demographic Consequences:** This alliance penalized the Southern peasantry by raising the price of bread while simultaneously closing foreign markets for their specialized exports. This economic squeeze directly catalyzed the **Great Emigration**, where millions of Southern Italians sought survival in the Americas, fundamentally altering the country's demographic and economic trajectory.

While institutional modernization was driven by the Piedmontese monarchy, Giuseppe Garibaldi represented the **Democratic-Republican** alternative to the moderate-liberal synthesis. His influence acted as a persistent counter-pressure to the centralized state, shaping the political culture of the new Kingdom through the tension between "royal conquest" and "popular initiative." ## The "Armed Nation" vs. The Regular Army Garibaldi’s primary legacy was the concept of the **Nazione Armata** (Armed Nation). Unlike the professional, aristocratic Piedmontese military, Garibaldi’s volunteers—the **Camicie Rosse** (Red Shirts)—represented a model of spontaneous, ideological mobilization. - **The Volunteer Tradition:** Garibaldinism established a tradition of volunteerism that challenged the state’s monopoly on violence. This created a dualistic military identity in Italy, where the "garibaldini" were seen as the moral conscience of the Risorgimento, often contrasting with the rigid, often repressive, official army. - **Integration and Marginalization:** Following the 1860 campaign, the new Italian state struggled to integrate Garibaldi’s irregular officers into the regular army. The subsequent dismissal or demotion of these "heroes" fueled a sense of betrayal among the democratic left, contributing to early anti-monarchical sentiment. ## The Rivoluzione Mancata (Incomplete Revolution) In Marxist and Gramscian historiography, Garibaldi’s failure to implement radical social changes in the South is termed the **Rivoluzione Mancata**. This framework suggests that Garibaldi’s military success was not matched by a social revolution, specifically regarding land redistribution. 1. **Strategic Compromise:** To ensure the support of the British and the neutrality of the Southern landowning classes, Garibaldi was forced to suppress peasant uprisings (e.g., the **Bronte Massacre** of 1860). This decision preserved the social order of the **Latifondo**, which the later Franchetti-Sonnino inquiry would identify as a core structural weakness. 2. **The Handshake at Teano:** The symbolic surrender of Southern conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II at Teano represented the triumph of **Diplomatic Unification** over **Social Revolution**, cementing the monarchy's dominance and relegating republicanism to the political periphery. ## The Roman Question and Domestic Instability Garibaldi’s obsession with capturing Rome created a permanent "state of exception" for the Italian government. His attempts to complete unification through private expeditions placed the state in an impossible diplomatic position regarding France and the Papacy. - **Aspromonte (1862) and Mentana (1867):** These episodes, where the Italian regular army was forced to fire upon Garibaldi and his volunteers, created a deep "internal schism." The state was forced to criminalize the very man who had delivered the South to the Crown, undermining the moral legitimacy of the new administration. - **Secular Iconography:** Despite these conflicts, Garibaldi’s image became a powerful tool for **secular nation-building**. He provided the state with a populist hero who could compete with the cultural influence of the Catholic Church, serving as a "lay saint" for the new Italian citizenry. ## Transnational Garibaldinism Garibaldi’s influence extended beyond Italian borders, positioning the Risorgimento within a broader **Transnational Liberalism**. His support for the French Republic in 1870 and his correspondence with labor movements in the United States and Britain turned "Garibaldinism" into a global brand for democratic self-determination. Within Italy, this fostered the growth of the **Società di Mutuo Soccorso** (Mutual Aid Societies), the precursors to modern labor unions, which drew their organizational inspiration from the egalitarian spirit of the Garibaldian volunteer corps.

The attitude of the Papacy during the Risorgimento was defined by a transition from cautious reformism to an absolute rejection of the modern secular state. This shift created a profound cultural and political schism that lasted until the early 20th century. ## The Transformation of Pius IX Initially perceived as a "Liberal Pope" upon his election in 1846, Pius IX’s stance hardened following the 1848 revolutions and the brief establishment of the Roman Republic. This experience convinced the Papacy that **Temporal Power**—the Pope’s secular authority over territorial states—was the only guarantee for his spiritual independence. Consequently, the Risorgimento was viewed not as a national liberation movement, but as a sacrilegious assault on divine right. ## The Syllabus of Errors and Ideological Conflict In 1864, Pius IX issued the **Syllabus Errorum** (Syllabus of Errors), a document that explicitly condemned eighty "errors" of the modern world. This text formalized the Church's opposition to: - **Liberalism and Secularism:** The Church rejected the separation of Church and State, arguing that the civil government should recognize Catholicism as the sole religion of the state. - **Rationalism:** The Papacy countered the Enlightenment-era emphasis on human reason with a reassertion of dogma and papal infallibility, the latter of which was formally defined at the **First Vatican Council** (1869–1870). ## The Non Expedit and Social Abstention Following the 1870 Capture of Rome, the Papacy adopted a policy of institutional "non-cooperation." This was codified in the **Non Expedit** (1874), a decree stating that it was "expedient" for Italian Catholics to participate in neither national elections as voters nor as candidates. 1. **The Internal Schism:** This created a divide between **Legal Italy** (the secular state apparatus) and **Real Italy** (the Catholic populace). By withdrawing from the ballot box, the Church aimed to undermine the moral and democratic legitimacy of the new Kingdom. 2. **The Prisoner in the Vatican:** Pius IX declared himself a "prisoner" within the Vatican walls, refusing to recognize the **Law of Guarantees** (1871), which sought to provide him with personal sovereignty and a financial annuity. This refusal was a diplomatic strategy designed to keep the "Roman Question" open on the international stage. ## The Papal Zouaves and the Global Crusade While Garibaldi mobilized volunteers for the nation, the Papacy mobilized an international force known as the **Papal Zouaves**. This volunteer army, composed of Catholics from France, Belgium, Ireland, and Canada, reframed the defense of the Papal States as a global crusade against secularism. This "Internationalism of the Right" mirrored the transnationalism of the Garibaldians, turning the Italian peninsula into a battlefield for competing visions of Western civilization. ## Catholic Social Mobilization Blocked from parliamentary politics, the Papacy encouraged the growth of the **Opera dei Congressi**, a network of lay organizations. This shifted Catholic energy into social and economic spheres, creating cooperatives and mutual aid societies that competed directly with socialist and liberal organizations for the loyalty of the rural and urban working classes. This grassroots mobilization laid the foundation for the eventual emergence of political Catholicism in the 20th century.

The independence of the Papal States during the nineteenth century was not merely a matter of Italian domestic policy; it was a central pillar of the European balance of power. The survival of the Pope’s territorial authority relied on complex diplomatic protections and a unique interpretation of international law. ## The French Protectorate and the Balance of Power Between 1849 and 1870, the independence of the Papal States was guaranteed primarily by the military presence of France. Napoleon III maintained a garrison in Rome to satisfy his domestic Catholic constituency and to prevent the Mediterranean from falling under the exclusive influence of a unified Italy or the Austrian Empire. This protection created a "state of exception" within the Italian peninsula. The withdrawal of these troops in 1870—necessitated by the **Franco-Prussian War**—was the immediate catalyst for the Fall of Rome. Without this external military scaffolding, the Papacy lacked the internal resources to maintain territorial independence against the modernized Royal Italian Army. ## Functional vs. Territorial Sovereignty Following the annexation of Rome, a critical distinction emerged between the **Papal States** (the physical territory) and the **Holy See** (the central governing body of the Catholic Church). While the Papal States ceased to exist in 1870, the Holy See retained its **International Legal Personality**. 1. **Diplomatic Immunity:** Despite having no land, the Holy See continued to send and receive ambassadors (*nuncios* and *pro-nuncios*). This allowed the Papacy to operate as a sovereign entity in international law even during the "Prisoner in the Vatican" period. 2. **The Law of Guarantees (1871):** The Italian government attempted to formalize this independence through a unilateral domestic law. It offered the Pope the same honors as a king and extraterritoriality for the Vatican and Lateran palaces. Pius IX rejected this because a unilateral law could be revoked by any future Italian parliament, whereas true independence, in his view, required a bilateral international treaty. ## Financial Independence and Peter’s Pence The loss of the Papal States meant the loss of a traditional tax base and customs duties. To maintain independence from the Italian state’s financial "allowance," which the Pope refused to touch, the Church revolutionized its financing through the revival of **Peter's Pence** (*Obolo di San Pietro*). This system transformed the Papacy from a land-based feudal power into a modern, globalized financial entity. By appealing directly to the individual faithful across the world for voluntary contributions, the Papacy secured a stream of revenue that was independent of any specific government's control. This financial shift was essential for the Papacy to continue its global mission without becoming a client of the Italian Crown. ## The Diplomatic Isolation of Italy The unresolved "Roman Question" fundamentally distorted Italian foreign policy for decades. Because the Papacy hinted at restoring its independence through the intervention of foreign Catholic powers, the Italian Kingdom was forced into the **Triple Alliance** (1882) with Germany and its traditional enemy, Austria-Hungary. This alliance was a defensive move to isolate France and ensure that no European power would take up the Pope's cause to dismantle Italian unity. Consequently, the struggle for Papal independence dictated the alignment of European powers leading up to the First World War.